A constant water supply, sturdy fences, well-designed driveways, handling pens with loading facilities, and shelters are necessary when grazing on remote areas. If concentrated feed is given to young cattle, then appropriate automatic feeders (pasture shelters) are suitable.

Pasture fences and gates

Fences must be sturdy

Depending on the region, there are various styles of wooden fences. These typical fences blend well into the landscape. While generally sturdy, they encourage animals to rub against them, which can weaken them. Depending on the type of wood, humidity, and any pretreatment, wooden fences typically last 8 to 12 years. Regular inspection and repairs are necessary.

Barbed wire fences are very common in permanent pastures because they are durable and the barbs are respected by cattle. However, it is important to ensure the wires are taut, otherwise they are ineffective. The posts must also be regularly checked. Generally, two to three wires are used. Three are necessary if calves and heifers are present in the herd. Subdivisions in rotational grazing systems are often created with electric fences, with the entire area enclosed by a barbed wire fence. Barbed wire fences frequently cause udder and teat injuries in cows.

Electric fences have become established in rotational and paddock grazing systems, but are also successfully used in permanent pastures. Their high flexibility and safety are key advantages. Electric fences with wires or tapes are available for every need. Heavy-duty wires with solar-powered cells are frequently used. These systems are strong and secure, even if the wires become partially overgrown with grass, thus diverting some of the current. Perimeter fences are often constructed as fixed fence systems (wood + 2-3 strands of electric fence wire), with dividers usually made of tape. In permanent pastures, electric fences are sometimes combined with wooden fences to create aesthetically pleasing enclosures while providing the necessary security.

Pasture gates

Depending on its use, gates may be necessary. Electric fences typically consist of a single wire that is easy to open and close. For pastures with livestock, sturdier gates or enclosures made of wood or iron are more common. The closing mechanism of gates must be reliable, as animals often rub against them and playfully try to open them. Iron gates are very stable when properly anchored. Self-closing gates are advantageous when hiking trails cross the pasture. For hiking trails, pedestrian-only access points have also proven effective. Wooden gates should be designed so that animals cannot squeeze their heads through.

Catching platforms and loading facilities

For pastures located away from the barn, catching and loading facilities are advantageous. Depending on the need, the catching stall can also be used as a treatment stall – thus allowing treatments to be carried out in the pasture.

The more extensively cattle are kept, the more natural their behavior becomes, and they react to any restriction or limitation of their freedom with panic and flight behavior. Catching and loading facilities must be robustly constructed. The design depends on the animals and must be more robust the more extensively they are kept. Calves raised like wild animals continue to behave this way throughout their lives, which is why their care and observation are particularly important. Loading ramps are also necessary to make the transport of cattle as stress-free as possible for both animal and human.

Loading ramps are usually combined with the holding pen; occasionally, there are also portable loading ramps that are also used in the stable area.

Driveways

Systematic design of pasture access routes saves working time, improves hoof and udder health, and protects pastureland.

In pasture-based dairy farming, cows must move from the pasture to the barn twice a day. It is therefore advisable to construct animal-friendly, cost-effective, and time-saving access routes. These routes should last at least 10-20 years without major maintenance and provide access to as much pasture as possible. It is beneficial if the animals can move freely between the pasture and the barn at any time. Cows particularly appreciate the coolness of the barn on hot days. Furthermore, cows coming from the milking parlor can immediately return to the pastures to graze.

Path width depends on the herd of cows

The larger the herd, the wider the path should be. A path width of 3 to 5 meters is ideal at the beginning. For small herds, the path width can be reduced to as little as 1 meter. Electric fences must be placed approximately 50 cm from the edge of the path, resulting in a total width of about 2 meters. For larger herds of over 40-50 cows, path widths of 3 to 4 meters are recommended, as otherwise, driving the animals in will be very time-consuming.

Pay attention to the floor

The durability of a cattle track depends heavily on the subsoil and the availability of drainage, such as through drainage systems. Soft tracks—which dry quickly—are generally preferable to hard ones. These are not only gentler on the hooves, but are also preferred by the cows. Cows can easily injure themselves on rough, stony material with damaged sole horn. If cows have to cover long distances on hard surfaces, this can lead to laminitis.

- For long distances, a 10 to 20 cm thick layer of wood chips and bark on a water-permeable subsoil is recommended. However, its durability (humus formation) is low, especially under damp conditions (water, shade).
- Another option is to use fine sand, which is spread damp and then well compacted.
- Acid-resistant asphalt and concrete paths are very durable and easy to drive on, but expensive and pose a slipping hazard on slopes. If there are stones on these surfaces, cows can easily injure their damaged hooves. These hard surfaces are not recommended for long driving paths.
- Concrete blocks (horticultural use) or old slatted floors can also be used. The cavities are either filled with sand or with humus and seeded.
- Plastic grids filled with sand are used in horse husbandry. These are usually also covered with wood chips.
- If gradients exceeding 30% need to be overcome, wooden sleeper steps (soft tread surface at least 50 cm wide) backfilled with earth or wood chips are recommended.

Crossings of driveways

Farm paths can be crossed using electric fence gates, simple tension bars, or swing-out electric fence barriers. The latter consist of one or two electrified barriers and hinges for mounting on posts. They allow vehicles to pass through easily and safely without having to get out. After passing through, the barrier swings back into its starting position.

Tip: At the Moarhof organic teaching and research farm in 8950 Trautenfels (Bio-Institut), different driveway designs and pasture fence designs can be viewed.

Tips for water supply

• Grazing animals must have constant access to clean water.
• Water scarcity or contaminated water leads to reduced feed intake, increases stress in animals, and negatively impacts their metabolism and health. For example, in a 2003 survey conducted by Dr. Leisen (Chamber of Agriculture North Rhine-Westphalia), he observed elevated somatic cell counts on pasture farms in the following cases:

             - insufficient water supply (or water quality), sometimes too few watering troughs

            - too great a distance between lying areas and drinking troughs

Table: Guideline values ​​for water requirements on pasture (from ÖAG Info 4/2006)

Accessibility within 50-150 m

• The higher the power output, the shorter the distance to the water source should be.
• It is very important to have a sufficient number of waterers (at least two), or a sufficiently long trough with a high water flow. If there are too few watering options, lower-ranking animals will drink less!

Water temperature

Water temperatures below 15 °C are desirable. High temperatures in summer provide ideal growth conditions for harmful germs. This necessitates frequent renewal of the drinking water (barrels) or cleaning of the drinking troughs every one to two days.

Contaminated water must not be offered.

Damp watering places also increase the risk of parasites and disease. Suitable watering systems include simple drinking water ring mains, spring catchments, pasture wells, and water barrels with drinking troughs. Using surface water is not recommended.

Pasture pumps must be adequately sized to avoid prolonged waiting times at the watering trough. To prevent soil and turf damage as well as mud formation in the heavily used watering area, the supply equipment should be relocatable or have a permeable surface (ÖAG Info 4/2006).

Control the distribution of feces and urine through watering points.

An even distribution of drinking points improves the distribution of fecal and urinary excretions.

Heat protection

Depending on performance level and environmental conditions, cattle in our latitudes can begin to experience heat stress at temperatures of 25 to 28 °C. At higher temperatures, respiratory rate increases, core body temperature rises, feed intake and milk production decrease, and metabolic stress increases. This stress also weakens the animals' immune systems, potentially leading to an increased incidence of mastitis. Relief on hot days can be achieved by providing shaded areas (free access to the barn, shortened grazing time, shaded areas under trees, etc.) or by installing a sprinkler system. The importance of a constant water supply is also emphasized in this context.